"Also known as". Used to list aliases or another name, or another spelling of a name used by a person.
【注】 “也称为，也即是”。通常用来列举一个人的别名、化名或其他名字及另外的拼写法。
Common Law——普通法
Laws that develop through case decisions by judges. Not enacted by legislative bodies.
common law, system of law that prevails in England and in countries colonized by England. The name is derived from the medieval theory that the law administered by the king's courts represented the common custom of the realm, as opposed to the custom of local jurisdiction that was applied in local or manorial courts. In its early development common law was largely a product of three English courts—King's Bench, Exchequer, and the Court of Common Pleas—which competed successfully against other courts for jurisdiction and developed a distinctive body of doctrine. The term “common law” is also used to mean the traditional, precedent-based element in the law of any common-law jurisdiction, as opposed to its statutory law or legislation, and also to signify that part of the legal system that did not develop out of equity, maritime law, or other special branches of practice.
Courts of equity were common law courts but had their own principles (e.g., clean hands doctrine) and their own unique remedies (e.g., injunction, specific performance). Actions were brought either equitably "in chancery" or legally "at law." Courts which are guided primarily by equitable doctrine are said to be courts of equity. Thus, a bankruptcy court is a court of equity.
【注】 衡平法院（Court of Equity），又称大法官法院（Court of Chancery）。1474年，大法官首次以自己的名义发布命令，标志着完全独立的衡平法院正式诞生。
衡平法院，也叫良心法院（Court of Conscience）。法官凭良心判案。衡平法院不实行陪审制，由大法官独自进行审理，自由裁量的余地很大，每个法官的判决也有很大的差别。因此有人说衡平法院的判决是由大法官脚的长短来决定的。衡平法官处理案件主要依据“衡平与良心”的原则（the rules of equity and good conscience），以后逐渐开始适用前衡平法官所创设的先例的原则，在衡平法院管辖的案件中，大量属于欺诈案件。
衡平法院虽然已经消亡，但衡平法的精神依然活着，衡平法已经成为英美法律研究与实务的不竭的源泉。在反避税中，美国税务局与法院越来越多地借助于衡平法的原理原则来防止税收规避，最常用的是“实质高于形式” （Substance over Form）规则，最早在Gregory v. Helvering一案中所运用，效果很好，也有相当的说服力。此外，还运用“虚假交易规则”（Sham Transaction Doctrine）等。
Emotional distress——精神损害、情感伤害
an increasingly popular basis for a claim of damages in lawsuits for injury due to the negligence or intentional acts of another. Originally damages for emotional distress were only awardable in conjunction with damages for actual physical harm. Recently courts in many states, including New York and California, have recognized a right to an award of money damages for emotional distress without physical injury or contact. In sexual harassment claims, emotional distress can be the major, or even only, harmful result. In most jurisdictions, emotional distress cannot be claimed for breach of contract or other business activity, but can be alleged in cases of libel and slander. Evidentiary problems include the fact that such distress is easily feigned or exaggerated, and professional testimony by a therapist or psychiatrist may be required to validate the existence and depth of the distress and place a dollar value upon it.
在美国的侵权行为法中，导致精神痛苦（infliction of Mental Distress）分为两种，一种是故意的和轻率的导致他人精神痛苦（intentional infliction of Mental Distress）另一种是过失的导致他人精神痛苦（Negligent infliction of Mental Distress）。构成故意精神损害的要件是：第一，行为人的行为是极端的和粗暴的；第二，伤害是故意的；第三，实际发生的精神损害是严重的。什么是严重的精神痛苦呢？在Davis v. Gage 一案的判决中，爱达荷州上诉法院认为严重的精神痛苦是指已经被“身体上的伤害”证明，或者有证据表明“原告的日常行为已经因此收到妨碍……或者是他/她的精神上遭受难以承受的打击……” 对于要求精神损害赔偿是否必须同时有身体上的伤害（physical injury）发生，美国判例法有详细的规定。尽管说被告的行为同时造成了身体上的伤害的证据与精神损害的严重程度是相互关联的，但是很明显的是身体受到伤害的证据或者是表现并不是主张故意精神损害赔偿所必需的。然而在过失精神损害的案件当中，原告必须表明他所承受的精神痛苦伴随着身体上的伤害。也就是说在过失精神损害赔偿的领域里，没有“纯粹”的精神痛苦的赔偿，或者说如果没有身体上的伤害或者疾病的表现，精神损害赔偿的主张是得不到支持的。
Equitable estoppel——衡平法禁止反言原则、衡平禁止翻供
where a court will not grant a judgment or other legal relief to a party who has not acted fairly; for example, by having made false representations or concealing material facts from the other party. This illustrates the legal maxim: "he who seeks equity, must do equity."
【注】 equitable estoppel (衡平法禁止反言)是英美法系国家的一般契约理论，其基本内涵是“My word is my bond”——言行一致，不得出尔反尔。英美法系国家传统的契约理论是：合同成立、变更均须有约因(consideration)，才能产生强制执行之效力。可是实践中大量存在着这样的现象，某人许诺赠与他人物品或答应他人无偿为其做某事，但不久又反悔而使受诺人遭受损失。受诺人受到损失后却无法律依据阻却权利人权利的行使。
衡平法的主要原则有：衡平法不允许有错误存在而没有救济（Equity will not suffer a wrong to be without remedy）。衡平法是对人的（Equity acts in personam）。衡平法遵从法律（Equity follows the law）。求助于衡平法者自身必须公正行事（He who seeks equity must do equity）。求助于衡平法者自身必须清白（He who comes to equity must come with clean hands）。延误是衡平法的大敌（或者拖延击败衡平法，Delay defeats equity）。衡平法注重意图而不重形式（Equity looks at the intent rather than the form）。衡平法可以推定出履行义务的意图（Equity imputes an intention to fulfill an obligation）。衡平法把应做之事看成是已做之事（Equity regards as done that which ought to be done）。
Fiduciary Duty——诚信责任、诚信义务、受信责任、信义义务
Fiduciary：An individual in whom another has placed the utmost trust and confidence to manage and protect property or money. The relationship wherein one person has an obligation to act for another's benefit.
a term found in contracts, court orders and statutes, meaning as soon as it can be reasonably done. It implies immediacy, with no excuses for delay.
【注】 Forthwith，是法律文书常用副词，其为“立即”的意思，例：The outstanding sum should be settled forthwith.（应该立即清还所欠的款项）。其实，所谓立即，可以理解为最短的合理时间。
General damages——普通损害赔偿、一般损害赔偿
monetary recovery (money won) in a lawsuit for injuries suffered (such as pain, suffering, inability to perform certain functions) or breach of contract for which there is no exact dollar value which can be calculated.
a state law which sets standards of care by the driver of a car to a non-paying passenger. Although state laws vary, the basic concept is that the social passenger can bring suit for negligence against the driver for gross negligence only if the driver could have foreseen that his/her actions or car could put the rider in great peril.
the crime of a driver of a vehicle who is involved in a collision with another vehicle, property or human being, who knowingly fails to stop to give his/her name, license number and other information as required by statute to the injured party, a witness or law enforcement officers.
consent when surrounding circumstances exist which would lead a reasonable person to believe that this consent had been given, although no direct, express or explicit words of agreement had been uttered.
agreement to do something or to allow something to happen only after all the relevant facts are known. In contracts, an agreement may be reached only if there has been full disclosure by both parties of everything each party knows which is significant to the agreement. A patient's consent to a medical procedure must be based on his/her having been told all the possible consequences, except in emergency cases when such consent cannot be obtained. In criminal law, a person accused or even suspected of a crime cannot give up his/her legal rights such as remaining silent or having an attorney, unless he/she has been fully informed of his/her rights.
『笺』 Informed consent doctrine（知情后同意法则），主张病人是医疗的主体而非客体，医师应该尊重病人之自主权，医疗措施要得到病人之告知後同意；医师应该将重要之医疗资讯，如病情、可能的治疗方案、各方案之治癒率、可能之并发症、副作用，以及不治疗之後果等资讯与病人分享，以帮助病人选择最适合病人生活价值之医疗方案。「告知後同意法则」乃是建立在病人的自主权（patient autonomy）此一上位概念上。其基本精神正如美国大法官卡多佐（Justice Benjamin Cardozo）於1914年所言：“每一个心智健全之成年人都有权利决定其身体要接受何种之处置。”（“Every human being of adult years and sound mind has a right to determine what shall be done with his own body.”）
Jaywalking——走路不遵守交通规则、违规穿越马路
walking across a street outside of marked cross-walks, and not at a corner, and/or against a signal light. If there is vehicle traffic or clear markings of a place to cross, this is a traffic misdemeanor subject to fine, and may be (but not conclusively) contributory negligence in the event of injury to the jaywalker by a vehicle.
Any controversy concerning terms or conditions of employment, or concerning the association or representation of persons in negotiating, fixing, maintaining, changing, or seeking to arrange terms or conditions of employment, regardless of whether or not the disputants stand in the proximate relation of employer and employee.
a presumption of fact assumed by a court for convenience, consistency or to achieve justice. There is an old adage: "Fictions arise from the law, and not law from fictions."
【注】 所谓法律拟制（legal fiction），是根据实际需要，把某种事实看作另一种事实，使其与另一种事实发生同一的法律效果。 “拟”、“制”合在一起，有决断性虚构之意，但在法律上是一种不容反驳的推定或者假定。例如，It is a legal fiction that a corporation is a person.（把团体法人当作一个人是一种法律上的假设。）
Moral turpitude——违背道德的、道德卑劣的
gross violation of standards of moral conduct, vileness.
【注】 Moral Turpitude，多指违反社会道德规范、善良风俗的卑劣行为。
Non-feasance——不履行义务、不守法
the failure of an agent (employee) to perform a task he/she has agreed to do for his/her principal (employer), as distinguished from "misfeasance" (performing poorly) or "malfeasance" (performing illegally or wrongly).
【注】 non-feasance，指当事人一方不能履行其已承诺的义务。它有别于不法行为、非法行为。
Probable Cause——合理理由、合理根据
Before a judge will sign a search warrant (that will allow the police to search a premises or arrest a suspect), the judge must have reliable information which states that a crime has been or is being committed and the suspect is involved. This information is termed as probable cause, based on which the judge will issue the warrant.
【注】 所谓Probable Cause （合理根据）是指，根据执法人员所了解的事实和情况或者所得到的可以合理信赖的信息，足以使一个正常而谨慎的人相信犯罪正在发生或者已经发生。
Reckless driving is a mental state in which the driver of an automobile behaves recklessly; the driver often misjudges common driving procedures, intentionally causing accidents and other damages.
Reckless driving, in the United States, is a serious moving traffic violation. As an offense reckless driving is variously described by different U.S. state statutes. It is usually a more serious offense than careless driving and is often punishable by fines, imprisonment, and/or driver's license suspension or revocation.
Restraint of trade is a restriction on a person's freedom to conduct business in a specified or unspecified location for a specified or unspecified length of time. Such restrictions are normally enacted by contracts. Generally however, such contracts are void on the ground of illegality, and cannot be enforceable unless they are reasonable in the interests of both contracting parties and of the public at large. Contracts between employer and employee and contracts for the sale of businesses which include terms restrictive of free business conduct are subject to this rule.
【注】 Restraint of trade（竞业限制），主要出现在雇佣关系上。很多时候，雇主会在雇佣合约上加上条款，限制雇员在离职以后，往别处地方工作或限制雇员在某特定时间内为其它雇主工作。这些限制有可能因地域或时间长短等而被法庭裁定无效。
Royal Assent——御准、王室同意
The granting of Royal Assent is the formal method by which a constitutional monarch completes the legislative process of lawmaking by formally assenting to an Act of Parliament. While the power to withhold Royal Assent was once exercised often, it has not been employed in a modern, democratic political atmosphere since the 18th century. The power remains as one of the reserve powers of the monarch.
【注】 在英国，经下议院、上议院一致同意（或者依照法律可以不经上议院同意）的议案呈交君主御准（Royal Assent），君主给予正式的同意，议案因此成为法案。御准日期（Date of Royal Assent）及君主同意议案成为法案的日期。它与该法的生效日期不同。
Sources of law are the materials and processes out of which law is developed. The basic sources of law include the Constitution, statutes, and caselaw. The natural law theory argues that some rules objectively existing in the nature also are source of law, while legal positivism argues that only the rules made by sovereignty can be the sources of law.
【注】 Sources of law（法律渊源），没有一个确定的定义，其含义在各个法律制度下也不尽相同。
（2）英国学者S. B. Marsh和J. Soulsby认为，法律渊源至少是指两种不同的事物，其一是指法律产生的历史源头，如普通法和衡平法；其二是指法院在判决案件时所诉诸的规则域系（body of rules）以及在哪里能够找到这些规则，当今最主要的是先例和立法。（S. B. Marsh and J. Soulsby, Outlines of English Law (4th ed.), McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1987, p10）
（3）J. Myron Hacobstein和Roy M. Mersky认为法律渊源一词包括三个不同的概念：第一是指法律概念和观念（conceptions and ideas）的源头；第二是指制定法律规则的政府机构；第三是指经公布的各种法律的宣示媒介，如书籍、数据库、胶卷微片、光盘等。（J. Myron Hacobsteinand Roy M. Mersky, Fundamentals of Legal Research, 5th ed. 1990）
（4）Thomas E. Holland认为法律渊源一词具有四种含义：第一是文献渊源（literary source），即人们从中获得法律知识的地方，如制定法汇编、判例汇编或专著；第二是正式渊源（formal source），即支撑法律的最高权力，如国家；第三是历史或材料渊源（historical or material sources），即导致（通常是自动地）后来获得法律效力的规则产生的原因，如习惯、宗教及科学论争等；第四是效力渊源（legal source），即国家用以认可先前没有法律效力的规则或用以制定新法律的机关，如立法或裁判机构。（Bryan A. Garner, A Dictionary of Modern Legal Usage (2nd ed.), Oxford University Press, 1995, pp819—820）
Trespass——侵越、非法侵扰
To commit an unlawful injury to the person, property, or rights of another, with actual or implied force or violence, especially to enter onto another's land wrongfully.
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